Human and Animal Research Ethics

Human Participants

Research involving human participants, identifiable private information, human biological materials, or clinical data must comply with applicable laws, institutional requirements, and recognized ethical standards. The Declaration of Helsinki is followed where applicable.

Ethics Approval

Where ethics review is required, authors state the name of the approving committee or institutional review board, the approval or protocol number, and the relevant date. Where a study did not require formal ethics approval, authors provide the documented institutional or legal determination.

Consent

Informed consent is obtained when required by the applicable ethics framework. Exceptions, waivers, or oral consent are justified and approved by the relevant ethics body where such approval is required. Full detail is set out in the Informed Consent Policy.

Secondary and De-identified Data

For secondary, de-identified, or public datasets, authors state the dataset source and the ethics determination or institutional policy applicable to use of the data. Authors must not disclose identifiable participant information.

Animal Research

Animal studies comply with applicable laws and institutional requirements and follow ARRIVE guidance where relevant. Authors provide the relevant animal ethics or institutional approval information and describe measures taken to minimize pain, distress, and unnecessary animal use.

Editorial Action

Manuscripts lacking required ethics information may be returned for clarification or declined when ethical compliance cannot be established.